Tetramethylpyrazine: A review of the most recent research

Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) is the main component of functional quality in vinegar. According to recent studies, TMP has a wide range of pharmacological effects, including a positive influence on the cardiovascular system, neurological system, tumors, and other disorders. This review compiled all of the most recent data on the pharmacological effects and probable mechanisms of TMP. TMP has been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation, dilate blood vessels, improve microcirculation, protect vascular endothelium, improve metabolism, be anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptosis, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-fibrosis, and have other beneficial effects. TMP is nontoxic, chemically stable, and can cross the blood-brain barrier. It is beneficial in treating cardiovascular, nervous, digestive, respiratory, and urinary system disorders. Several signaling pathways, including MAPK, PGC-1α/Nrf2/HO-1, PI3K/AKT, VEGF/VEGFR2, MMP/TIMP, TGF-β1, Bcl-2/Bax, and others, contribute to TMP's extensive pharmacological effects. TMP is a natural compound with promising research and development potential. This study provides a theoretical foundation for TMP's clinical application and references for future research.