PM2.5-Bound Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Hong Kong: Occurrence, Origins, and Source-Specific Health Risks

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are emerging organic pollutants in PM_2.5, which have caused significant public health concerns in recent years, given their potential carcinogenic and neurotoxic effects. However, studies on the sources, occurrence, and health risk assessment of PM_2.5-bound OPFRs in Hong Kong are lacking. To address this knowledge gap, we characterized 13 OPFRs in one-year PM_2.5 samples using gas chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Our findings showed that OPFRs were present at a median concentration of 4978 pg m^–3 (ranging from 1924 to 8481 pg m^–3), with chlorinated OPFRs dominating and accounting for 82.7% of the total OPFRs. Using characteristic source markers and positive matrix factorization, we identified one secondary formation and five primary sources of OPFRs. Over 94.0% of PM_2.5-bound OPFRs in Hong Kong were primarily emitted, with plastic processing and waste disposal being the leading source (61.0%), followed by marine vessels (14.1%). The contributions of these two sources to OPFRs were more pronounced on days influenced by local pollution emissions (91.9%) than on days affected by regional pollution (44.2%). Our assessment of health risks associated with human exposure to PM_2.5-bound OPFRs indicated a low-risk level. However, further source-specific health risk assessment revealed relatively high noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks from chlorinated OPFRs emitted from plastic processing and waste disposal, suggesting a need for more stringent emission control of OPFRs from these sources in Hong Kong.