TY - JOUR
T1 - Patterns, variability, and predictors of p-phenylenediamine quinones and parent p-phenylenediamines in pregnant women across three trimesters
AU - Zhang, Jing
AU - Liu, Hongxiu
AU - Zhao, Hongzhi
AU - Dai, Qingyuan
AU - Wang, Wei
AU - Wang, Fuyue
AU - Cao, Guodong
AU - Zhou, Yanqiu
AU - Xu, Shunqing
AU - Cai, Zongwei
N1 - The authors acknowledge the support of National Natural Science Foundation of China (22306150), National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFA0901104), Hong Kong General Research Fund (12302722 and 12303321), the “CUG Scholar” Scientific Research Fund (2024017), and Hubei Natural Science Foundation (2025AFB493).
Publisher Copyright:
© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
PY - 2025/9
Y1 - 2025/9
N2 - p-Phenylenediamine quinones (PPD-Qs), oxidative derivatives of rubber antioxidant p-phenylenediamines (PPDs), have garnered increasing concern due to their environmental ubiquity and toxicity. However, evidence regarding the exposure assessment of these emerging contaminants in humans, especially pregnant women, remains limited. Herein, we measured the levels of six PPD-Qs and their parent six PPDs in 1,278 urine samples collected from 426 pregnant women over three trimesters with the aim of evaluating the exposure profiles, variability, and predictors of PPD-Qs and PPDs during pregnancy. Most PPD-Qs exhibited high detection frequencies (>50 %) in the urine of pregnant women, except for DTPD-Q (9.3 %). The median specific gravity-adjusted concentration of ∑PPD-Qs (10.38 ng/mL) was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) than that of ∑PPDs (1.20 ng/mL). The urinary concentrations of PPD-Qs and PPDs were associated with maternal age, parity, education level, pre-pregnancy body mass index, occupational status, and sampling season. In addition, this longitudinal study found that the PPD-Qs and PPDs concentrations varied across trimesters, with the highest concentrations of most PPD-Qs observed in the first trimester, highlighting a relatively higher exposure risk during early pregnancy. High variability for most PPD-Qs and PPDs highlights the need for multiple measurements to ensure accurate exposure assessment during pregnancy. The median daily excretion of PPD-Qs and PPDs was estimated at 192.54 ng/kg bw/day and 25.18 ng/kg bw/day, respectively, highlighting the urgency of addressing the potential health impacts of these pervasive yet largely ignored contaminants during pregnancy. While this study provides the first longitudinal biomonitoring of PPD-Qs and PPDs during pregnancy, further research integrating longitudinal monitoring with toxicokinetic and epidemiological investigations is essential to better understand the potential health risks associated with these emerging contaminants.
AB - p-Phenylenediamine quinones (PPD-Qs), oxidative derivatives of rubber antioxidant p-phenylenediamines (PPDs), have garnered increasing concern due to their environmental ubiquity and toxicity. However, evidence regarding the exposure assessment of these emerging contaminants in humans, especially pregnant women, remains limited. Herein, we measured the levels of six PPD-Qs and their parent six PPDs in 1,278 urine samples collected from 426 pregnant women over three trimesters with the aim of evaluating the exposure profiles, variability, and predictors of PPD-Qs and PPDs during pregnancy. Most PPD-Qs exhibited high detection frequencies (>50 %) in the urine of pregnant women, except for DTPD-Q (9.3 %). The median specific gravity-adjusted concentration of ∑PPD-Qs (10.38 ng/mL) was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) than that of ∑PPDs (1.20 ng/mL). The urinary concentrations of PPD-Qs and PPDs were associated with maternal age, parity, education level, pre-pregnancy body mass index, occupational status, and sampling season. In addition, this longitudinal study found that the PPD-Qs and PPDs concentrations varied across trimesters, with the highest concentrations of most PPD-Qs observed in the first trimester, highlighting a relatively higher exposure risk during early pregnancy. High variability for most PPD-Qs and PPDs highlights the need for multiple measurements to ensure accurate exposure assessment during pregnancy. The median daily excretion of PPD-Qs and PPDs was estimated at 192.54 ng/kg bw/day and 25.18 ng/kg bw/day, respectively, highlighting the urgency of addressing the potential health impacts of these pervasive yet largely ignored contaminants during pregnancy. While this study provides the first longitudinal biomonitoring of PPD-Qs and PPDs during pregnancy, further research integrating longitudinal monitoring with toxicokinetic and epidemiological investigations is essential to better understand the potential health risks associated with these emerging contaminants.
KW - Emerging contaminants
KW - Human exposure
KW - P-phenylenediamine
KW - P-phenylenediamine quinones
KW - Pregnant women
KW - Three trimesters
UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105013683367
U2 - 10.1016/j.envint.2025.109729
DO - 10.1016/j.envint.2025.109729
M3 - Journal article
C2 - 40845406
AN - SCOPUS:105013683367
SN - 0160-4120
VL - 203
JO - Environment International
JF - Environment International
M1 - 109729
ER -
