Engineering and characterization of an enhanced fluorescent protein voltage sensor

Fluorescent proteins have been used to generate a variety of biosensors to optically monitor biological phenomena in living cells. Among this class of genetically encoded biosensors, reporters for membrane potential have been a particular challenge. The use of presently known voltage sensor proteins is limited by incorrect subcellular localization and small or absent voltage responses in mammalian cells. Results. Here we report on a fluorescent protein voltage sensor with superior targeting to the mammalian plasma membrane and high responsiveness to membrane potential signaling in excitable cells. Conclusions and Significance. This biosensor, which we termed VSFP2.1, is likely to lead to new methods of monitoring electrically active cells with cell type specificity, non-invasively and in large numbers, simultaneously.