Collectivism's individualism: Value preference, personal control, and the desire for freedom among Chinese in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Singapore

The purpose of this research was to examine whether the value choices of Chinese in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Singapore would reflect a collectivistic emphasis. The overall results instead showed a heavy emphasis on individualistic values, especially among Mainland Chinese. Marked differences were found between the three Chinese groups, with the Mainland and Singapore groups showing the greatest contrasts. Specifically, Mainland Chinese showed very diverse concerns: they preferred the personal-extrinsic and competency values, as well as some social values. In contrast, Hong Kong and Singapore Chinese indicated greater preference for the personal-intrinsic and moral values. Additional data on locus of control showed that the greater individualistic orientation of Mainland Chinese coincided with their greater external control beliefs, as predicted. In comparing the Chinese groups with a group of U.S. subjects, it was found that the differences did not reflect any distinct individualistic or collectivistic pattern. The present findings were discussed in relation to past collectivistic depictions of Chinese, and to the notion that collectivism can be a means to individualistic ends in Chinese society.